As recently highlighted, the landscape of lunar exploration is undergoing a significant transformation, with new leaders and unprecedented advancements emerging. A testament to this shifting paradigm is the rapid ascent of China in robotic exploration of the Moon. With each successive mission, considerable gains have been observed in the nation’s capacity to reach the lunar surface, deploy advanced scientific instruments, and execute complex sample return operations. These ambitious **China’s Moon missions** are not merely isolated endeavors; they represent a carefully orchestrated, systematic progression towards a much larger presence on Earth’s celestial companion, anticipated to materialize substantially within this decade.
Chang’e 6: Pioneering the Moon’s Enigmatic Far Side
On May 3rd, the Chinese Long March 5 rocket successfully launched the Chang’e 6 mission, which was the world’s inaugural spacecraft designed to retrieve samples from the Moon’s far side. Approximately 37 minutes after its liftoff, the 8200-kilogram Chang’e 6 spacecraft separated from the rocket, entering its predetermined orbit of 200 by 380,000 kilometers. This marked the commencement of an intricate 53-day mission, involving the coordinated operation of four distinct spacecraft modules: an orbiter, a lander, an ascender, and a re-entry capsule.
By May 8th, the Chang’e 6 spacecraft stack had successfully entered an elliptical orbit around the Moon. This was achieved through a precisely executed braking burn, utilizing a 3,000-Newton engine on the orbiter module to sufficiently slow the spacecraft, allowing it to be captured by lunar gravity. Shortly thereafter, a significant moment for international space cooperation was observed when Chang’e 6 deployed Pakistan’s 7-kilogram CubeSat, iCube-Q, into orbit. This mission represents Pakistan’s first venture exploring our cosmic companion, with iCube-Q hosting two optical cameras and a magnetometer, intended to detect potential signs of water ice at the Moon’s poles.
The successful touchdown of China’s Chang’e 6 lander on the Moon’s far side occurred on June 1st, following a 14-minute descent from an altitude of approximately 15 kilometers in its lunar orbit. The lander settled near the southern rim of the 500-kilometer-wide Apollo Impact Crater, specifically at 153.99 degrees west, 41.64 degrees south. This achievement signifies China’s fourth successful lunar landing out of four attempts, and notably, it is only the second far-side lunar touchdown ever, succeeding Chang’e 4.
Advanced Landing Technologies for Lunar Precision
The precision required for lunar landings, particularly on the far side, necessitates a suite of advanced technologies. Much like other modern lunar landers, Chang’e 6 employed several critical systems to ensure a safe descent. These included a variable thrust engine for controlled braking, optical imagery combined with onboard maps for navigation, and hover phases designed to detect and avoid hazards. For the final free fall, shock-absorbing crush core legs were integral for a gentle impact. Furthermore, a laser-based LiDAR sensor was utilized by Chang’e 6 to meticulously map the local landing area in three dimensions before the final landing sequence.
An intriguing aspect of the Chang’e 6 landing was the incorporation of gamma-ray sensors. It was mentioned in a CNSA release that these sensors provided crucial landing aid, accurately measuring height through particle rays. This innovative approach prevented potential interference to optical sensors from lunar dust during the final landing phase, thereby ensuring the engine could be shut down at the opportune moment and the lander could smoothly touch down on the lunar surface. Imagine if such technologies were not present; the risks associated with an uncontrolled descent in dusty environments would be significantly higher.
Within a mere week, Chang’e 6 completed its primary objectives: it successfully touched down, collected up to 2 kilograms of soil and rock samples using both a drill and a movable complementary surface scoop, and acquired contextual data via lander instruments such as cameras, a ground penetrating radar, and a mineral spectrometer. Subsequently, the lander’s arm facilitated the transfer of samples into a sealed container. A small 5-kilogram rover was then deployed to photograph the lander strategically, following which the samples were launched into lunar orbit as part of an ascender module on June 3rd. This ascender autonomously determined its position and orientation with support from the Queqiao 2 communications relay lunar orbiter, eventually docking with the Chang’e 6 orbiter on June 6th after four orbital adjustments. About 30 minutes later, the precious lunar samples were transferred into the Earth return capsule.
The journey back to Earth commenced on June 21st, when the Chang’e 6 orbiter module, housing the sample capsule, began its homeward trajectory. Approximately 5,000 kilometers from Earth on June 25th, the orbiter module released the roughly 300-kilogram re-entry capsule. This capsule subsequently performed a bounced atmospheric re-entry before safely descending and landing in China’s northern Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. This mission, orchestrating numerous complex modules, was executed flawlessly, demonstrating capabilities vital for China’s future human lunar landings, which are aimed for by the end of the decade. China currently stands as the sole nation to have successfully performed robotic rendezvous and docking operations at the Moon.
Unlocking Lunar Secrets with Far-Side Samples
The scientific value of these Chang’e 6 lunar samples is considered even greater than those previously collected by Chang’e 5. The Apollo Crater, where the landing occurred, is embedded within the Moon’s largest, deepest, and oldest crater—the 2500-kilometer wide South Pole-Aitken Basin. The diverse range of materials expected within the Chang’e 6 samples is anticipated to assist scientists globally in resolving a multitude of lunar mysteries. This includes understanding the distinct volcanism observed on the lunar far side and unraveling why this side differs so enigmatically from the more familiar near side. Such insights are deemed crucial not only for comprehending the Moon’s evolution but also for understanding the broader development of our solar system.
Queqiao Relay Orbiters: The Eyes and Ears of Far-Side Exploration
Given that Chang’e 6’s surface mission was conducted on the Moon’s far side—the hemisphere perpetually hidden from Earth—mission operators relied entirely on the recently launched Queqiao 2 relay orbiter for commanding the lander and receiving its data. This crucial orbiter is also slated to provide communication support for China’s forthcoming Chang’e 7 and Chang’e 8 landers, which are currently targeting launches in 2026 and 2028, respectively. The Queqiao 2 mission is actively testing and validating technologies essential for the upcoming Queqiao satellite constellation, which is projected to become the world’s first dedicated lunar navigation and communications service. This constellation is expected to offer communication assistance for China’s initial crewed Moon landing, which is provisionally planned for launch by 2030.
Upcoming Missions: Chang’e 7 and Chang’e 8
The trajectory of **China’s Moon missions** continues with Chang’e 7 and Chang’e 8, each designed to push the boundaries of lunar exploration further.
Chang’e 7: South Pole Prospecting and International Collaboration
CNSA is aiming for the launch of its Chang’e 7 lander and orbiter in 2026. This mission is planned to touch down in one of the key identified landing regions at the Moon’s South Pole. Following its landing, it will deploy a rover and one or two hoppers. Similar to missions such as NASA’s VIPER and the JAXA-ISRO LuPEx, one of the Chang’e 7 elements will utilize a drill to sample materials from varying depths within nearby permanently shadowed areas. These samples will be fed into a heating furnace for an onboard lunar water molecule analyzer, which is designed to detect water ice and other volatile resources like ammonia.
Further capabilities of Chang’e 7 include a ground penetrating radar for mapping the local subsurface, instruments for making local magnetic field measurements, and spectrometers to ascertain the composition of the local lunar material. A seismometer will also be carried, mirroring instruments selected for NASA-funded CLPS missions and Artemis 3. This instrument is expected to provide scientists with better insights into the lunar interior, constrain the rate of seismic activity, and measure micrometeorite impacts on the Moon’s South Pole. Such data is vital for safely planning extended crewed missions to the region in the future.
On April 24th, CNSA announced that Chang’e 7 would host six international scientific instruments, underscoring a commitment to global collaboration. The orbiter is slated to carry a hyperspectral mineral mapping camera developed by Egypt and Bahrain, a 3-kilogram instrument duo from Thailand for studying solar storms and cosmic rays, and a Swiss-aided radiation monitor to measure incoming and outgoing radiation to and from Earth. For Egypt, Bahrain, and Thailand, this mission marks their inaugural study of the Moon. Concurrently, the lander will host a Russian lunar dust and plasma analyzer, a telescope from the International Lunar Observatory Association, and another reflector from Italy-based SCF Lab, consistent with the payload of Chang’e 6.
Navigating Lunar Site Selection and Cooperation
Discussions have arisen regarding potential overlaps in lunar landing site choices, particularly concerning Chang’e 7’s candidate site near Shackleton Crater, which is also considered by NASA for the Artemis 3 crewed Moon landing. While some media reports have suggested China “oversteps NASA” in selecting this coveted region, such assertions require careful examination. It has been generally understood that the robotic Chang’e 7 would likely land on the Moon’s South Pole before the crewed Artemis 3 mission. Moreover, Artemis 3 currently has 13 candidate landing zones, which does not constitute a definitive selection. Shackleton Crater itself is a significant 21-kilometer-wide feature, offering numerous mission-favorable areas on its rim and nearby ridges.
Even if both missions ultimately converge on Shackleton as a primary landing region, their actual touchdown sites could be reasonably distant, both temporally and spatially. While the water-rich lunar South Pole’s finite nature might eventually lead to competition for specific sites, purely engineering and scientific factors often drive landing site selections towards similar locations. For example, the perpetually low-angle solar illumination at the lunar poles, combined with challenging rocky terrain, renders high-altitude areas desirable for power generation, causing many lunar polar missions to converge there. Scientists and engineers on both sides of the ocean understand these technical imperatives, and such factors should be prioritized over speculative narratives that could potentially undermine international cooperation and collaboration. Alarmist rhetoric, it is felt, can impede constructive discussions about the genuine challenges of lunar exploration.
Chang’e 8: Pioneering In-Situ Resource Utilization
Following Chang’e 7’s anticipated insights into the nature and accessibility of water ice deposits, CNSA plans to launch Chang’e 8 two years later, in 2028, aboard a Long March 5 rocket. This mission will comprise a lander, a rover, and an operational robot, collectively equipped with 14 instruments to explore the local geology and environment. Critically, Chang’e 8 aims to test technologies paramount for initiating crewed lunar missions towards the end of the decade. It has been reported that CNSA issued calls for domestic proposals for nine of the 14 Chang’e 8 instruments in February.
One notable payload on the lander is designed to melt lunar soil and transform it into parts via 3D printing for assembly on the surface. An accompanying instrument will monitor and inspect this process. Chang’e 8’s approximately 100-kilogram operation robot, engineered for relatively swift movement by lunar rover standards, will transport these 3D-printed parts from the lander to a designated working area and assemble basic structures, demonstrating the feasibility of in-situ utilization of lunar resources. This robot will also collect rock and soil samples for the lander’s spectrometers to determine their chemical composition, likely including water ice. Furthermore, CNSA might choose to leave some samples on the Moon for future missions to retrieve and bring back to Earth.
Similar to Chang’e 7, Chang’e 8 will feature a seismometer, which is expected to aid scientists in gaining a deeper understanding of the lunar interior. This instrument will also help to constrain the rate of seismic activity and the impact of micrometeorites on the lunar South Pole, information that is crucial for safely planning long-duration crewed missions to the region in the future. A significant aspect of Chang’e 8 is China’s increased scope for international contributions; while Chang’e 6 and 7 offered space for 15 to 20 kilograms of international instruments, China has been accepting proposals for scientific instruments, technology payloads, and even system-level contributions totaling up to 200 kilograms for Chang’e 8. Selections for these contributions are anticipated by Q3 of this year.
Towards a Crewed Lunar Presence and the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS)
**China’s Moon missions** demonstrate a systematic and progressive approach, culminating in an ambitious vision for human presence on the Moon.
China’s Human Spaceflight Vision
The successful lunar orbiters Chang’e 1 and Chang’e 2 paved the way for the Chang’e 3 Moon landing in 2013, which was followed by the far-side lunar landing of Chang’e 4. CNSA further advanced its engineering complexity by returning lunar samples to Earth with Chang’e 5 in 2020, and then again with Chang’e 6, which collected the first-ever samples from the Moon’s distinct far side. With Chang’e 7 poised to provide a tactile understanding of water ice deposits at the South Pole, and Chang’e 8 demonstrating technologies like 3D printing lunar bricks, these missions are charting a clear course towards human lunar landings by the decade’s end. Progress on this front is reportedly well underway, with elements of China’s first crewed lunar landing mission having entered prototype production and test stages.
While no official announcement has been made, it is widely expected that China will conduct at least one uncrewed lunar landing and a crewed lunar orbital flight before attempting to place humans on the surface. China’s crewed Moon landing plan hinges on the development of a colossal new rocket, the Long March 10, which will launch from a new pad in Wenchang. This rocket is designed to carry 27,000 kilograms of payload on a trajectory to the Moon, matching the performance of NASA’s current SLS rocket and more than tripling China’s current lunar payload capacity compared to its best Long March 5 rocket, from which the Long March 10 is derived. In May 2023, it was reported that China commenced using a new advanced facility in Tongchuan for test-firing huge rocket engines, including those being prototyped for the Long March 10. Recently, three YF-100K prototype engines were test-fired in preparation for constructing the Long March 10’s first stage.
For the crewed landing mission scheduled for the end of the decade, a Long March 10 rocket will launch a 26,000-kilogram spacecraft named Mengzhou-Y, which will transport three to four astronauts to lunar orbit. There, it is planned to dock with the equally massive Lanyue lunar lander, itself launched on a separate Long March 10. Following docking, two astronauts will transfer to the lander for a lunar touchdown, returning to orbit after exploring the Moon for a minimum of six hours, potentially extending to a few days. In July 2023, the China Manned Space Agency solicited proposals for scientific payloads for the mission’s lander, focusing on lunar geology, physics, life sciences, and solar and astronomical observations, akin to NASA’s Artemis 3 instrument requirements. Additionally, on June 11th, the China Manned Space Engineering Office announced the addition of 10 unidentified astronauts to its taikonaut core, some of whom may participate in China’s crewed lunar missions starting at the end of the decade. Similar to ESA’s PANGAEA campaign, China will provide geology field training to astronaut candidates, followed by mission-specific training simulators resembling those used during the Apollo era, underscoring the importance of such skills during lunar excursions.
The International Lunar Research Station (ILRS): A Long-Term Vision
The long-term vision for **China’s Moon missions** extends to the establishment of the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS), which, as revealed by chief designer Wu Weiren, will also feature an orbital component. While this orbital element of the predominantly surface-based ILRS, situated at the Moon’s South Pole, is projected to exist around 2045, it is expected to be of considerable scale and host multiple continuous experiments. By then, CNSA’s Queqiao satellite constellation should be fully operational, providing essential navigation and communication support for the numerous orbital and surface lunar assets operated by China and its growing roster of approximately two dozen partners. China’s ambition is to eventually include 50 nation partners and 500 international organizational collaborators for the ILRS.
Following China’s first crewed Moon landing, tentatively targeted for 2030, the nation plans to concentrate on constructing the surface phase of the ILRS by 2035. Central to this endeavor is the development of a new super-heavy-lift and eventually reusable rocket, the Long March 9, which China aims to test by 2032. This rocket is projected to carry 50,000 kilograms of spacecraft hardware on a Moonward trajectory, nearly doubling the performance of both the Long March 10 and NASA’s current SLS rocket. Once operational, the Long March 9 is intended for delivering vast quantities of cargo and potentially additional crew to the ILRS Moonbase. This will include critical infrastructure for sustainable surface hubs via missions designated ILRS-1 through 5, encompassing energy systems, communications, transportation services (landers, rovers, hoppers, ascent vehicles), scientific research equipment, in-situ resource utilization technologies, and more.
The ILRS Moonbase is envisioned to host large-scale scientific and technological experiments continuously, operated by robots and, when available, humans. In 2023, China finalized the key scientific goals for the ILRS, which include: deepening understanding of the Moon’s evolution and structure, conducting lunar-based astronomy for cosmology and exoplanet studies, observing the Sun and Earth from the Moon’s unique vantage point, and performing lunar-based experiments such as plant growth studies. In a related development, a high-resolution geological map of the Moon, compiled over a decade by more than 100 researchers, was created by synthesizing data from CNSA’s Chang’e 1 to 4 missions, NASA’s LRO and GRAIL orbiters, and ISRO’s Chandrayaan 1 orbiter. This map, freely available for non-commercial use, is actively supporting China’s expanding lunar ambitions. Building upon Chang’e 8 and China’s initial crewed landing, the ILRS will also feature multiple demonstrations related to extracting and utilizing local lunar resources, such as water ice and melting regolith for 3D-printed structures.
China’s recent submission to the UN COPUOS regarding the legality of utilizing lunar resources suggests that the country considers such activities permissible under current international law, aligning in principle with the US-led Artemis Accords. This action has been viewed by some Western experts as a positive step, potentially enabling mutual dialogue for cooperative resource governance within a decidedly international forum. The evolving framework for resource utilization highlights a critical dimension of future **China’s Moon missions** and collaborative ventures, emphasizing the intricate balance between scientific pursuit, technological advancement, and international policy. The continued progress and international cooperation seen across these missions underscore China’s long-term commitment to lunar exploration and its vision for a sustainable human presence beyond Earth.
Dragon’s Reach: Your Questions on China’s Moon Missions Answered
What is China’s main goal with its Moon missions?
China aims to establish a significant presence on the Moon through advanced robotic exploration, leading to crewed landings and a long-term research station by the end of the decade.
What was unique about the Chang’e 6 mission?
Chang’e 6 was the first mission in the world to successfully collect and return samples from the Moon’s far side, which is the hemisphere perpetually hidden from Earth.
How do missions communicate from the Moon’s far side?
Missions on the Moon’s far side rely on relay satellites, like the Queqiao 2 orbiter, to send and receive communications because they are out of direct line-of-sight with Earth.
What are China’s plans for sending humans to the Moon?
China plans to achieve its first crewed lunar landing by 2030, using a new powerful rocket called the Long March 10 and a dedicated lunar lander.
What is the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS)?
The ILRS is China’s long-term vision for a collaborative base at the Moon’s South Pole, where robots and humans will conduct continuous scientific experiments and demonstrate resource utilization.